Current developments and recent social and cultural transformations under the forces of globalization indicate that the prophecy of traditional secularization thesis seems to have failed to capture the ongoing influence of religion. Proponents of secularization thesis established an unavoidable and casual connection between the beginning of modernity and the decline of traditional forms of religious life. Generally speaking theorists of secularization process argued that religion would lose its influence on social and political life once the society absorbs the values and institutions of modernization. For B. Wilson for example “secularization relates to the diminution in the social significance of religion”. L. Shiner on the other hand, argued that the culmination of secularization would be religionless society.
Contemporary developments in the globe and recent debates in social sciences indicate that such comprehensive claims and predictions of the secularization theory have only limited validity and success, mostly confined to Western Europe which Grace Davie describes it as an exception rather than the rule. Political leaders in the West as well as in the Muslim world seem to have failed to see the importance of religion. After observing the global rise of religion, Peter L. Berger, who was once the proponent of secularization theory, admits “that the assumption that we live in a secularized world is false. The world today, with some exceptions.... is as furiously religious as it ever was, and in some places more so than ever”. Now it is time that political leaders should understand the significance of religion and develop a discourse and rhetoric accordingly. Sociological blindness of political leaders should no longer continue.
Rise of Culturalist Discourse and Rhetoric: Marking Muslims as ‘others’ and Drawing Cultural Boundaries
There has been increasing trend towards a culturalist discourse and rhetoric of conflict in recent decades when it comes to deal with people of different ethnic/national origin and religious background in Europe. Especially recent debates on immigrant and ethnic minorities in general and on Muslims in particular seem to centre on irreconcilable cultural and civilizational differences.
The following quotation supports this observation: ‘Since Turks are different from Germans in culture and mentality, and want to stay different, it is only natural that they seek the proximity of fellows in Germany. That means Turkish quarters, also known as ghettos, are developing in our cities. That could only be prevented by force, not by social security benefits or persuasion...We have no reason to let critics at home and abroad accuse us of racism, when we insist that the German Federal Republic must not become a country of immigration. Anyone who disregards this natural and justified feeling of our fellow citizens is preparing the way for the extreme right...The question of reasonable and humane rotation must be reconsidered.’ These remarks were made in 1982 by the leader of a CDU/CSU parliamentary group. The difference between German and Muslim identity was further emphasized by the CDU chairman in 1983 Annual Conference. He demanded that Germany should protect its cultural identity against Islamic culture. These statements by political leaders undoubtedly agree on one thing that there are two competing identities as implied by the party officials that they are irreconcilable. Turkish ethnic identity marked by Islamic values and its social manifestations in public places seem to disturb these politicians. The strong emphasis on the irreconcilable nature (including religion and culture) of German versus Turkish-Islamic identity is seen one of the most important obstacles of integration into the host society.
When we look at more current political rhetoric and discourses we see a similar trend. Silvio Berlusconi, then the Prime Minister of Italy, stated right after the tragic event of 9/11 that European civilization was superior to the Islamic one and therefore its Christian roots should be promoted and revived. Here there is a clear culturalist approach which puts emphasis on differences and indicates the superiority/inferiority of one particular culture/religion vis-à-vis the other.
Political leaders seem to fail how divisive their discourse might be. Let me give you another striking example for the rise of culturalist rhetoric. Although Turkey, with a dominant Muslim population, started full membership negotiation with the EU, opponents of Turkey’s membership use a strong language referring to religion and culture although Turkey is a strongly secular country. Some years ago, critique of Turkey centered on issues concerning human rights, democratization, transparence and accountability. No one used to mention the dominant religion in Turkey. However, recent political rhetoric focuses on religion and culture. French Prime Minister Jean-Pierre Raffarin’s following statement illustrates this point well. On the full membership of Turkey in the EU, he said: “Do you want the floods of Islamism submerge the river of secularism?".
Dominant Political Discourse on Immigration and Settlement of Ethnic Communities: The German Case
Migration, settlement of ethnic and Muslim communities and their culture are often on the agenda of political leaders in many European countries. Policies and practices towards Muslims and other ethnic communities reflect the imprint of dominant civil cultures. Analysis of discourses on these issues by political leaders and decisions concerning migrants/minorities indicate how nation and national imagery are constructed in the face of immigration and settlement of 'others' who are perceived as posing challenges, if not threats, to the dominant culture. Germany for example, presents a clear case where the dominant political discourse is translated into educational policies.
One can see no contradiction between political discourse of state and practice of education in relation to immigration to Germany and its socio-cultural effects. Contents and goals of curricula have not been modified in accordance to the presence of immigrants in Germany. Terms such as Gastarbeiter (guestworker), ausländische Arbeitnehmer (foreign employees) or Ausländer (foreigners) all denote the alien character of the migrants. The presence of immigrants for up to 35 years has not led to any re-formulation of what should be taught in German schools. Evidently, orientations that support traditional bonds of an ethnically constructed nation prevail in Germany. The official political credo in Germany still is to ignore and deny the status of being an immigration country. These observations indicate that political leadership and discourse in Germany promotes the idea of ethnic, cultural and lingual homogeneity in the German nation.
Challenges to Political Leaders:
Political Leaders Should Understand the Existential Value of Islam for MuslimsNow it is time to put aside old prejudices and recover from Islamophobia. It must be noted here that Muslims can not be understood properly unless one discovers the meaning of religion for Muslim communities. Religion is not simply a cultural heritage or a source of individual/collective identity or merely a set of ritual practices for Muslims. Islam has an existential value for Muslim believers providing a weltanschauung for them in public and private realms. It will be possible to establish working relations and sustainable dialogue with Muslims if only Europeans understand the meaning and significance of religion and its existential importance for Muslims.
Addressing Root Causes Rather than Blaming Muslims
Violence and terror, which have been on the rise in recent years, concern all of us. It is true that religious symbols, discourse and rhetoric are used not only to justify these evil acts, but also used to recruit believers. Social, economic and political problems prevalent in Muslim countries, a sense of victimhood by the West provide a fertile ground for such practices. Poor, oppressed and marginalized people become easy prey for recruitment to terror groups. Authoritarian regimes, lack of democracy and freedom, injustice, poverty, sense of alienation and deprivation, lack of political participation and civil society, sense of being dominated and exploited lead to radicalism, monolithic understanding of religion and in some cases to violence in the name of God. If there is no mechanism expressing injustices and grievances, then people may become vulnerable to unwanted influences and resort to non-democratic methods. In order to prevent radicalization of people it is essential to establish democracy, freedom of thought and expression, justice for all and eliminate poverty, exploration and discrimination
Avoiding Securitization of Muslims and Limitation of Civil Liberties
An important challenge that the political leadership in the West is to avoid securitization of Muslim communities and their members. 9/11 in USA, 7/7 in UK and train bombings put Muslims under the spotlight. Political leaders started to use words such as Islam, Muslims, extremism, radicalism, violence and terrorism in the same and similar context. Such a discourse runs the risk of essentialising Muslim communities and illustrating them as a national security threat, leading to limiting civil liberties. This has already happened to some extent. Political leaders should avoid securitization of Muslims and limitation of civil liberties.
Engagement with National/Transnational Muslim Civil Organizations
Migration leads to the emergence of transnational communities and extremely large social, political and religious networks. This is also the case for Muslim immigrants/citizens in Europe and America. Therefore leaders in the West should not only work with Muslims in their countries but also civil organizations and governmental agencies in the countries of origin.
The Way Forward: Recommendations
Rising influence / revival of religion as search for meaning should be recognized by political leaders and elites. Religion should not be underestimated as a global force and potential actor. ODIHR can facilitate discussions among politicians on the social and political importance of particular religions for their followers.
Existential value/significance of Islam as one of the powerful sources of collective identity should be recognized. There are multiple modernities and Muslim modernity is different than that of western modernity concerning its impact on religion-state-society relations. ODIHR can organize expert meetings to highlight this issue.
Culturalist language/rhetoric/discourse concerning Islam and Muslim should be avoided. ODIHR can help monitor how often politicians employ such a discourse or rhetoric and come up with some guidelines to use a proper language that reflects a balanced view on Islam/Muslims.
Political leaders should engage with Muslims on all levels (communal, civil society, mosques, academic). ODIHR may bring politicians, Muslim civil associations, intellectuals and academics around the same table on a regular basis to facilitate exchanges of view directly.
Empowering/encouraging Muslims (grass root organizations) to engage in local/national/EU level policies. ODIHR can launch a project among Muslims in Europe regarding the importance of political participation. Summer schools for young Muslims can be organized to this effect.
Engaging with the sending countries and mobilizing transnational networks/social capital of Muslims should be encouraged. Muslims in Europe are not totally divorced from the sending contexts. Transnational communities and sense of belongingness are emerging through visits, satellite and internet media outlets and political mobilizations. ODIHR should launch a research project as to the extent of influence of sending contexts.
Securitization of Islam/Muslims should be avoided by political leaders. Once such an approach becomes dominant than civil liberties are likely to be revoked. ODIHR must take strong position against securitization of Islam/Muslims.
Islam should be recognized as a religion to ensure the Muslims also enjoy same the same rights with members of recognized faith communities. ODIHR should launch a research about legal position of Islam in participating states and a campaign to make legal amendments to establish justice and equality for all faith groups.
ODIHR should launch a study of educational materials to see how Islam and Muslims are portrayed that may lead to Islamophobia and encourage political leaders to introduce more inclusive curricula that can reflect the social and cultural diversity.
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